2017 Research

The effects of physical activity interventions on children’s cognition and metacognition: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• OBJECTIVE: The objective was twofold: to assess the effect of physical activity (PA) interventions on children’s and adolescents’ cognition and metacognition; and to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance the development of cognitive and metacognitive functions.
• METHOD: We systematically searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, and PsycINFO databases from their inception to October 16, 2016. Intervention studies aimed at examining the exercise–cognition interaction at a developmental age were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size (ES) values and their corresponding 95% CIs. Subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the effect of participants’ and PA programs’ characteristics.
• RESULTS: A total of 36 studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Pooled ES estimations were as follows: nonexecutive cognitive functions 0.23 (95% CI = 0.09−0.37); core executive functions 0.20 (95% CI = 0.10−0.30), including working memory (0.14 [95% CI = 0.00−0.27]), selective attention−inhibition (0.26 [95% CI = 0.10−0.41]), and cognitive flexibility (0.11 [95% CI = −0.10 to 0.32]); and metacognition 0.23 (95% CI = 0.13−0.32), including higher-level executive functions (0.19 [95% CI = 0.06−0.31]) and cognitive life skills (0.30 [95% CI = 0.15−0.45]).
• CONCLUSION: PA benefits several domains of cognition and metacognition in youth. Curricular physical education interventions and programs aimed at increasing daily PA seem to be the most effective.
• CITATION: Álvarez-Bueno, C., Pesce, C., Cavero-Redondo, I., Sánchez-López, M., Martínez-Hortelano, J. A., & Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. (2017). The effects of physical activity interventions on children’s cognition and metacognition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(9), 729-738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.012

Intensity of commonly-reported classroom-based physical activity opportunities in public schools

• ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to examine the intensity levels of PA opportunities offered in public school classrooms. Schools (N = 101) in school districts (N = 25) reported PA opportunities offered in classrooms using an online data collection tool over a two-year period (2014–2016). Using a randomized sampling technique, 20–30% of teachers in each school were selected each week to report PA in their classroom. These responses resulted in N = 18,210 usable responses. A researcher determined the intensity of PA opportunities using the 2011 Compendium of Physical Activities as a guideline; two additional researchers confirmed the coded categories. A descriptive analysis of PA opportunities was conducted to describe the proportion of opportunities whose intensity levels were light (LPA), moderate (MPA), vigorous (VPA), sedentary (SED), and those of unknown intensity. Chi-square analyses were utilized to examine differences between proportions of intensity levels offered by semester. Kruskal-Wallace tests were utilized to examine differences in proportion of physical activity opportunity intensity offered by grade level. Most PA opportunities were MPA (58.7%), followed by VPA (17.6%) and LPA (11.5%). Few responses were SED (0.5%), and 11.6% were of indeterminate intensity. A greater proportion of more physically intense activities reported during the fall versus spring semesters (p < 0.0001). Differences in the intensity levels of PA offered by grade also differed, with a trend of decreasing intensity as grade level increased (p < 0.0001). This study provides insight into the PA actually occurring in classrooms; a previously underexplored construct of school-based PA.
• CITATION: Behrens, T. K., Holeva, W. M., Carpenter, D., Tucker, E., Luna, C., Donovan, J., … Kelly, C. (2017). Intensity of commonly-reported classroom-based physical activity opportunities in public schools. Preventive Medicine Reports, 6(Supplement C), 157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.02.025

Impacts of active school design on school-time sedentary behavior and physical activity: A pilot natural experiment

• BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Children spend a significant portion of their days in sedentary behavior (SB) and on average fail to engage in adequate physical activity (PA). The school built environment may influence SB and PA, but research is limited. This natural experiment evaluated whether an elementary school designed to promote movement impacted students’ school-time SB and PA. Accelerometers measured SB and PA at pre and post time-points in an intervention group who moved to the new school (n = 21) and in a comparison group experiencing no school environmental change (n = 20). Difference-in-difference (DD) analysis examined SB and PA outcomes in these groups. Measures were also collected post-intervention from an independent, grade-matched group of students in the new school (n = 21).
• RESULTS: As expected, maturational increases in SB were observed. However, DD analysis estimated that the intervention attenuated increase in SB by 81.2 ± 11.4 minutes/day (p<0.001), controlling for time in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The intervention was also estimated to increase daily number of breaks from SB by 23.4 ± 2.6 (p < .001) and to increase light physical activity (LPA) by 67.7 ± 10.7 minutes/day (p<0.001). However, the intervention decreased MVPA by 10.3 ± 2.3 minutes/day (p<0.001). Results of grade-matched independent samples analysis were similar, with students in the new vs. old school spending 90.5 ± 16.1 fewer minutes/day in SB, taking 21.1 ± 2.7 more breaks from SB (p<0.001), and spending 64.5 ± 14.8 more minutes in LPA (p<0.001), controlling for time in MVPA. Students in the new school spent 13.1 ± 2.7 fewer minutes in MVPA (p<0.001) than their counterparts in the old school.
• CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study found that active school design had beneficial effects on SB and LPA, but not on MVPA. Mixed results point to a need for active classroom design strategies to mitigate SB, and quick access from classrooms to areas permissive of high-intensity activities to promote MVPA. Integrating active design with programs/policies to promote PA may yield greatest impact on PA of all intensities.
• CITATION: Brittin, J., Frerichs, L., Sirard, J. R., Wells, N. M., Myers, B. M., Garcia, J., … Huang, T. (2017). Impacts of active school design on school-time sedentary behavior and physical activity: A pilot natural experiment. PLoS ONE, 12(12), e0189236–e0189236. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189236

Classroom-based physical activity: Minimizing disparities in school-day physical activity among elementary school students

• BACKGROUND: Evidence of the positive effects of school physical activity (PA) interventions, including classroom-based PA (CBPA), is rapidly growing. However, few studies examine how variations in scheduled PA opportunities and teacher-implemented CBPA affect students’ PA outcomes.
• METHODS: Teachers at five elementary schools attended training on how to implement CBPA. Data on school day PA opportunities (physical education [PE], recess, CBPA) were obtained via calendar and teacher-recorded CBPA logs. Daily step counts were measured via accelerometry in 1,346 students across 65 classrooms in first through fifth grades.
• RESULTS: PE, recess, and CBPA contributed significantly to students’ daily steps. Males accrued more steps than females over the school day, during PE, and during recess. No gender disparity was seen in the amount of additional steps accrued during CBPA. Overall step counts were lower among fifth grade students versus first grade students, but CBPA attenuated this difference such that grade level differences were not significant in fifth grade students who received CBPA.
• CONCLUSIONS: Gender disparities in step totals were present on PE and recess days, but not on CBPA days. [Classroom-based PA] appears to provide equal PA benefits for both genders, and to potentially minimize the decline in PA among older students.
• CITATION: Calvert, H. G., Mahar, M. T., Flay, B., & Turner, L. (2017). Classroom-based physical activity: Minimizing disparities in school-da physical activity among elementary school students. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 1–26. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2017-0323

Contextual factors related to implementation of classroom physical activity breaks

• ABSTRACT: Brief structured physical activity in the classroom is effective for increasing student physical activity. The present study investigated the association between implementation-related contextual factors and intervention implementation after adoption of a structured classroom physical activity intervention. Six elementary-school districts adopted structured classroom physical activity programs in 2013–2014. Implementation contextual factors and intervention implementation (structured physical activity provided in past week or month, yes/no) were assessed using surveys of 337 classroom teachers from 24 schools. Mixed-effects models accounted for the nested design. Availability of resources (yes/no, ORs = 1.91–2.93) and implementation climate z-scores (ORs = 1.36–1.47) were consistently associated with implementation. Teacher-perceived classroom behavior benefits (OR = 1.29) but not student enjoyment or health benefits, and time (OR = 2.32) and academic (OR = 1.63) barriers but not student cooperation barriers were associated with implementation (all z-scores). Four implementation contextual factor composites had an additive association with implementation (OR = 1.64 for each additional favorable composite). Training and technical assistance alone may not support a large proportion of teachers to implement structured classroom physical activity. In addition to lack of time and interference with academic lessons, school climate related to whether administrators and other teachers were supportive of the intervention were key factors explaining whether teachers implemented the intervention. Evidence-based implementation strategies are needed for effectively communicating the benefits of classroom physical activity on student behavior and improving teacher and administrator climate/attitudes around classroom physical activity.
• CITATION: Carlson, J. A., Engelberg, J. K., Cain, K. L., Conway, T. L., Geremia, C., Bonilla, E., … Sallis, J. F. (2017). Contextual factors related to implementation of classroom physical activity breaks. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13142-017-0509-x

They just need to move: Teachers’ perception of classroom physical activity breaks

• ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to explore 1) perceptions of preschool-8th grade teachers’ in regard to classroom physical activity (PA) and 2) multiple levels of factors impacting preschool-8th grade teachers’ ability to implement PA into the classroom. Sixty preschool-8th grade teachers from five school districts participated in semi-structured interviews following a guide developed from constructs of the social ecological model. All teachers implemented classroom PA but had varied levels of confidence for implementation. Teachers identified barriers to implementation and requested additional classroom PA resources. Furthermore, they identified collaboration with other teachers as an underutilized resource for promotion of classroom PA.
• CITATION: Dinkel, D., Schaffer, C., Snyder, K., & Lee, J. M. (2017). They just need to move: Teachers’ perception of classroom physical activity breaks. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.12.020

Physical activity and academic achievement across the curriculum: Results from a 3-year cluster-randomized trial

• ABSTRACT: We compared changes in academic achievement across 3 years between children in elementary schools receiving the Academic Achievement and Physical Activity Across the Curriculum intervention (A + PAAC), in which classroom teachers were trained to deliver academic lessons using moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) compared to a non-intervention control. Elementary schools in eastern Kansas (n = 17) were cluster randomized to A + PAAC (N = 9, target ≥ 100 min/week) or control (N = 8). Academic achievement (math, reading, spelling) was assessed using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition (WIAT-III) in a sample of children (A + PAAC = 316, Control = 268) in grades 2 and 3 at baseline (Fall 2011) and repeated each spring across 3 years. On average 55 min/week of A + PACC lessons were delivered each week across the intervention. Baseline WIAT-III scores (math, reading, spelling) were significantly higher in students in A + PAAC compared with control schools and improved in both groups across 3 years. However, linear mixed modeling, accounting for baseline between group differences in WIAT-III scores, ethnicity, family income, and cardiovascular fitness, found no significant impact of A + PAAC on any of the academic achievement outcomes as determined by non-significant group by time interactions. A + PAAC neither diminished or improved academic achievement across 3-years in elementary school children compared with controls. Our target of 100 min/week of active lessons was not achieved; however, students attending A + PAAC schools received an additional 55 min/week of MVPA which may be associated with both physical and mental health benefits, without a reduction in time devoted to academic instruction.
• CITATION: Donnelly, J. E., Hillman, C. H., Greene, J. L., Hansen, D. M., Gibson, C. A., Sullivan, D. K., … Washburn, R. A. (2017). Physical activity and academic achievement across the curriculum: Results from a 3-year cluster-randomized trial. Preventive Medicine, 99(Supplement C), 140–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.006

The effects of physical activity on learning behaviors in elementary school children: a randomized control trial

• BACKGROUND: Research in education and developmental psychology indicates that behavioral engagement in learning is a critical predictor of children’s academic success. In an effort to improve academic achievement, school administrators are continually in search of methods to increase behavioral engagement. Previous research has indicated that classroom-based physical activity (PA) lessons have a positive impact on academic achievement. However, little research has been done in assessing the impact of such interventions on the behavioral engagement of students with learning behavior difficulties.
• METHODS: This study assesses the impact of classroom-based PA on teacher-rated classroom behaviors of students with identified learning behavior difficulties. Two schools (one intervention, one control) participating in a larger, cluster-randomized trial provided scores on a teacher-administered classroom behavior scale. This scale was used to collect information on 15 characteristics identified as being essential to behavioral engagement. Participants included male and female students in second and third grade classrooms who were identified by their classroom teacher and school counselor as having difficulties with learning behaviors. Mixed linear modeling for repeated measures was used to examine the changes over time in the classroom behavior scores.
• RESULTS: The intervention group showed significant improvement over time in classroom behavior while the control group showed no change or a slight degradation over time (i.e., group × time interaction, F[2132] = 4.52, p = 0.01).
• CONCLUSIONS: Schools must meet the diverse needs of students today, including those who exhibit less than optimal learning behaviors. Combined with the evidence that PA is linked to several health and cognitive-behavior benefits, providing classroom-based PA that is incorporated within the curriculum provides common ground for all students to participate. It is a potential solution to increasing behavioral engagement, and in turn stimulating and enhancing learning.
• CITATION: Harvey, S. P., Lambourne, K., Greene, J. L., Gibson, C. A., Lee, J., & Donnelly, J. E. (2017). The effects of physical activity on learning behaviors in elementary school children: a randomized control trial. Contemporary School Psychology, 1-10. doi:10.1007/s40688-017-0143-0

Effects of different doses and types of classroom-based physical activity breaks on cognition

• BACKGROUND: Emerging research supports the efficacy of classroom-based physical activity (PA) breaks on various aspects of cognition. Previous studies have manipulated the dose of PA (i.e., 5, 10, and 20min, Howie et al., 2015) and type of PA, ranging from more traditional forms of PA to cognitively engaging PA (Schmidt et al., 2016). Cognitively engaging PA requires a degree of mental effort and has been shown to be superior to traditional forms of PA for improving cognition.
• PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different doses and types of classroom-based PA on cognition in a single study. Participants (N = 116, Mage = 12±0.98) completed two batteries of cognitive tests (Stroop task, Trail Making Test, Forward Working Memory, and 1-minute Math test) separated by either a teacher-led PA break or regular classroom work (control participants). The PA break consisted of 5, 10, or 20 minutes of traditional classroom-based PA (e.g., jumping jacks, squats) or cognitively engaging PA (i.e., solved math problems alongside PA).
• RESULTS: Results showed that the PA conditions improved on all aspects of cognition when compared to controls (ps > .05). Importantly, improvements were mediated by higher self-efficacy and changes in positive affect and intrinsic motivation following the PA breaks. However, there were no differences in cognitive improvements between the PA conditions with regards to type or dose of PA.
• CONCLUSION: Findings have implications for classroom-based PA breaks and suggest that even 5 minutes of PA can increase aspects of cognition associated with learning and academic achievement.
• CITATION: Graham, J., Bremer, E., & Cairney, J. (2017). Effects of different doses and types of classroom-based physical activity breaks on cognition. Journal of Exercise, Movement, and Sport, 49(1), 171. Retrieved from http://www.scapps.org/jems/index.php/1/article/view/1669

Does increased physical activity in school affect children’s executive function and aerobic fitness?

• ABSTRACT: This study seeks to explore whether increased PA in school affects children’s executive function and aerobic fitness. The “Active school” study was a 10-month randomized controlled trial. The sample included 449 children (10-11 years old) in five intervention and four control schools. The weekly interventions were 2×45 minutes physically active academic lessons, 5×10 minutes physically active breaks, and 5×10 minutes physically active homework. Aerobic fitness was measured using a 10-minute interval running test. Executive function was tested using four cognitive tests (Stroop, verbal fluency, digit span, and Trail Making). A composite score for executive function was computed and used in analyses. Mixed ANCOVA repeated measures were performed to analyze changes in scores for aerobic fitness and executive function. Analysis showed a tendency for a time×group interaction on executive function, but the results were non-significant F(1, 344)=3.64, P=.057. There was no significant time×group interaction for aerobic fitness. Results indicate that increased physical activity in school might improve children’s executive function, even without improvement in aerobic fitness, but a longer intervention period may be required to find significant effects.
• CITATION: Kvalø, S. E., Bru, E., Brønnick, K., & Dyrstad, S. M. (2017). Does increased physical activity in school affect children’s executive function and aerobic fitness? Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12856

Effect of active lessons on physical activity, academic, and health outcomes: A systematic review

• PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of classroom-based physical activity interventions that integrate academic content and assess the effectiveness of the interventions on physical activity, learning, facilitators of learning, and health outcomes.
• METHOD: Six electronic databases (ERIC, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Cochrane Library, and EMBASE) and reference lists were searched for English-language articles, published January 1990 through March 2015, reporting classroom-based interventions that deliberately taught academic content using physically active teaching methods for at least 1 week duration, with physical activity, health, learning, or facilitators-of-learning outcomes. Two authors reviewed full-text articles. Data were extracted onto an Excel spreadsheet, and authors were contacted to confirm accuracy of the information presented.
• RESULTS: Fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Six studies reporting on physical activity levels were found to have medium-to-large effect sizes. All 4 studies reporting learning outcomes showed positive effects of intervention lessons. Teachers and students were pleased with the programs, and enhanced on-task behavior was identified (n = 3). Positive effects were also reported on students’ body mass index levels (n = 3).
• CONCLUSIONS: Physically active academic lessons increase physical activity levels and may benefit learning and health outcomes. Both students and teachers positively received and enjoyed these teaching methods. These findings emphasize the need for such interventions to contribute toward public health policy.
• CITATION: Martin, R., & Murtagh, E. M. (2017). Effect of active lessons on physical activity, academic, and health outcomes: A systematic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 88(2), 149–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2017.1294244

Classroom-based physical activity and sedentary behavior interventions in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• BACKGROUND: It is reported that 81% of adolescents are insufficiently active. Schools play a pivotal role in promoting physical activity (PA) and reducing sedentary behavior (SB). The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate classroom-based PA and SB interventions in adolescents.
• METHODS: A search strategy was developed using the PICOS framework. Articles were screened using strict inclusion criteria. Study quality was assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project quality assessment tool (http://www.ephpp.ca/tools.html ). Outcome data for preintervention and postintervention were extracted, and effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d.
• RESULTS: The strategy yielded 7574 potentially relevant articles. Nine studies were included for review. Study quality was rated as strong for 1 study, moderate for 5 studies, and weak for 3 studies. Five studies were included for meta-analyses, which suggested that the classroom-based interventions had a nonsignificant effect on PA (P=.55, d=0.05) and a small, nonsignificant effect on SB ( P=.16, d=−0.11).
• CONCLUSION: Only 9 relevant studies were found, and the effectiveness of the classroom-based PA and SB interventions varied. Based on limited empirical studies, there is not enough evidence to determine the most effective classroom-based methodology to increase PA and SB.
• CITATION: McMichan, L., Gibson, A.-M., & Rowe, D. A. (2017). Classroom-based physical activity and sedentary behavior interventions in adolescents : a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Physical Activity and Health (10.1123/jpah.2017-0087). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2017-0087

Objectively measured sedentary behaviour and moderate and vigorous physical activity in different school subjects: a cross-sectional study

• BACKGROUND: Evidence shows the positive influence of moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and negative influence of sedentary time on health and academic achievement. Although schools can significantly contribute to overall physical activity, little is known about MVPA and sedentary behaviour in different school subjects in different grades.
• METHODS: Physical activity of 646 students from 18 schools (94 classes) and from three school stages (grades 1–9, aged 7–16) was measured with accelerometry for 5 school days. Time and proportion of MVPA and sedentary time, also average sedentary bout length was calculated for native language (Estonian), mathematics, science, foreign language, music and crafts lessons.
• RESULTS: A total of 6363 lessons were measured, with lesson duration of 45 min. The average lesson time MVPA remained below 2.2 min in all school stages and in all subjects. Students in grades 4–6 had greatest decline in the proportion of lesson time MVPA in science (β = −1.9, 95%CI −3.1– -0.6) and music (−1.2, −2.1– -0.4) and in grades 7–9 in music (−1.7, −3.1– -0.3) lessons compared to grades 1–3. In grades 1–3 students spent on average 76% of lesson time (34.0 ± 7.0 min) as sedentary, whereas in grades 7–9 the average proportion of sedentary time was 87% (38.9 ± 5.7 min). An average sedentary bout length increased from 13 min in grades 1–3 to 20 min in grades 7–9. An increase in sedentary bout length from grades 1–3 compared to grades 7–9 was present in most subjects, except crafts, with smallest increase in foreign language (6 min, 3.5–8.9) and greatest in music lessons (16.6 min, 11.9–21.3). Lessons with prolonged sedentary bouts formed a maximum 36% of all lessons in grades 1–3 and 73% in grades 7–9.
• CONCLUSION: The long sedentary time, bout length and low MVPA in most subjects were unfavourable in respect of both health and academic achievement. Significantly increasing sedentary time and sedentary bout length in older school stages highlights the need for interventions in all subjects and especially in older grades in order to combat the inactivity of children.
• CITATION: Mooses, K., Mägi, K., Riso, E.-M., Kalma, M., Kaasik, P., & Kull, M. (2017). Objectively measured sedentary behaviour and moderate and vigorous physical activity in different school subjects: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 17, 108. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4046-9

Effects of physical activity and breaks on mathematics engagement in adolescents

• OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether physical activity has a positive relationship with school engagement regardless of the presence or absence of a recess or lunch break before the classroom lesson.
• DESIGN: Data were collected over three ten-week periods: January–April 2014 (Time 1), October–December 2014 (Time 2), and April–June 2015 (Time 3).
• METHODS: A cohort of 2194 adolescents (mean age = 13.40 years, SD = .73) wore an accelerometer during the hour before a mathematics lesson and completed a questionnaire following the mathematics lesson to assess school engagement in that lesson.
• RESULTS: Linear mixed models indicated that moderate-intensity activity before a mathematics lesson had a positive linear relationship with cognitive engagement (β = .40, p < .05). Recess breaks before a mathematics lesson had a negative relationship with overall, behavioural, emotional, and cognitive engagement (β = −.18, p < .01, β = −.19, p < .01, β = −.13, p = .03, and β = −.13, p = .04, respectively).
• CONCLUSIONS: Promoting moderate-intensity activity prior to mathematics lessons could improve students’ cognitive engagement. Educators should be aware that students tend to demonstrate the lowest levels of school engagement after recess breaks.
• CITATION: Owen, K. B., Parker, P. D. Astell-Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (2017). Effects of physical activity and breaks on mathematics engagement in adolescents. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2017.07.002

Gender-specific effects on physical activity on children’s academic performance: The Active Smarter Kids cluster randomized controlled trial

• BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Active learning combines academic content with physical activity (PA) to increase child PA and academic performance, but the impact of active learning is mixed. It may be that this is a moderated relationship in which active learning is beneficial for only some children. This paper examine the impact of baseline academic performance and gender as moderators for the effects of active learning on children’s academic performance. In the ASK-study, 1129 fifth-graders from 57 Norwegian elementary schools were randomized by school to intervention or control in a physical activity intervention between November 2014 and June 2015. Academic performance in numeracy, reading, and English was measured and a composite score was calculated. Children were split into low, middle and high academic performing tertiles. 3-way-interactions for group (intervention, control)∗gender (boys, girls)∗academic performance (tertiles) were investigated using mixed model regression.
• RESULTS: There was a significant, 3-way-interaction (p=0.044). Both boys (ES=0.11) and girls (ES=0.18) in the low performing tertile had a similar beneficial trend. In contrast, middle (ES=0.03) and high performing boys (ES=0.09) responded with small beneficial trends, while middle (ES=-0.11) and high performing girls (ES=-0.06) responded with negative trends. ASK was associated with a significant increase in academic performance for low performing children. It is likely that active learning benefited children most in need of adapted education but it may have a null or negative effect for those girls who are already performing well in the sedentary classroom. Differences in gendered responses are discussed as a possible explanation for these results.
• CITATION: Resaland, G. K., Moe, V. F., Bartholomew, J. B., Andersen, L. B., McKay, H. A., Anderssen, S. A., & Aadland, E. (2017). Gender-specific effects of physical activity on children’s academic performance: The Active Smarter Kids cluster randomized controlled trial. Preventive Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.10.034

Impact of 3 years of classroom physical activity bouts on time-on-task behavior

• BACKGROUND: Participation in classroom physical activity (PA) may improve time-on-task (TOT), however, the influence of sustained moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) on TOT is unknown.
• PURPOSE: To explore the influence of classroom PA delivered with academic lessons on TOT, determine if the relationship between classroom PA and TOT differs by age, sex, race/ethnicity, weight or baseline fitness, and identify the influence of MVPA on TOT when controlling for demographic variables.
• METHODS: Teachers in intervention schools were asked to deliver two, 10-minute PA lessons/day, 5 days/week. PA was observed in both intervention and control schools to determine the amount and intensity of PA. TOT was observed prior to and immediately following PA. Anthropometrics and fitness were assessed at baseline and end of the school year for 3 years. Multilevel modeling was utilized to estimate overall group difference, change over the study, and group difference in change while accounting for covariates.
• RESULTS: Students who participated in PA lessons engaged in significantly more MVPA than those in the control schools in all three years (all p<.001). There was a significant linear increase in the percent of TOT before PA lessons for both control and intervention groups over the 3-year period (p<.001), with no group difference. The intervention group spent significantly more TOT (p=.01) following PA than the control group. The percent of time spent in MVPA was significantly associated with the percent of TOT (p<.01).
• CONCLUSION: Results indicate that children who received PA lessons participated in significantly more MVPA than those who did not and that PA was significantly associated with more TOT. These findings provide support for classroom PA as a means of increasing TOT in elementary aged children.
• CITATION: Szabo-Reed, A. N., Willis, E. A., Lee, J., Hillman, C. H., Washburn, R. A., & Donnelly, J. E. (2017). Impact of 3 years of classroom physical activity bouts on time-on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001346

“It’s a battle…you want to do it, but how will you get it done?”: Teachers’ and principals’ perceptions of implementing additional physical activity in school for academic performance

• ABSTRACT: School is an ideal setting to promote and increase physical activity (PA) in children. However, implementation of school-based PA programmes seems difficult, in particular due to schools’ focus on academic performance and a lack of involvement of school staff in program development. The potential cognitive and academic benefits of PA might increase chances of successful implementation. Therefore, the aim of this qualitative study was: (1) to explore the perceptions of teachers and principals with regard to implementation of additional PA aimed at improving cognitive and academic performance, and (2) to identify characteristics of PA programmes that according to them are feasible in daily school practice. Twenty-six face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with primary school teachers (grades 5 and 6) and principals in The Netherlands, and analysed using inductive content analysis. Teachers and principals expressed their willingness to implement additional PA if it benefits learning. Time constraints appeared to be a major barrier, and strongly influenced participants’ perceptions of feasible PA programmes. Teachers and principals emphasised that additional PA needs to be short, executed in the classroom, and provided in “ready-to-use” materials, i.e., that require no or little preparation time (e.g., a movie clip). Future research is needed to strengthen the evidence on the effects of PA for academic purposes, and should examine the forms of PA that are both effective as well as feasible in the school setting.
• CITATION: Van den Berg, V., Salimi, R., de Groot, R. H. M., Jolles, J., Chinapaw, M. J. M., & Singh, A. S. (2017). “It’s a battle…you want to do it, but how will you get it done?”: Teachers’ and principals’ perceptions of implementing additional physical activity in school for academic performance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(10), 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101160

Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• BACKGROUND: Physical activity is associated with many physical and mental health benefits, however many children do not meet the national physical activity guidelines. While schools provide an ideal setting to promote children’s physical activity, adding physical activity to the school day can be difficult given time constraints often imposed by competing key learning areas. Classroom-based physical activity may provide an opportunity to increase school-based physical activity while concurrently improving academic-related outcomes. The primary aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the impact of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic-related outcomes. A secondary aim was to evaluate the impact of these lessons on physical activity levels over the study duration.
• METHODS: A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO) was performed in January 2016 and updated in January 2017. Studies that investigated the association between classroom-based physical activity interventions and academic-related outcomes in primary (elementary) school-aged children were included. Meta-analyses were conducted in Review Manager, with effect sizes calculated separately for each outcome assessed.
• RESULTS: Thirty-nine articles met the inclusion criteria for the review, and 16 provided sufficient data and appropriate design for inclusion in the meta-analyses. Studies investigated a range of academic-related outcomes including classroom behaviour (e.g. on-task behaviour), cognitive functions (e.g. executive function), and academic achievement (e.g. standardised test scores). Results of the meta-analyses showed classroom-based physical activity had a positive effect on improving on-task and reducing off-task classroom behaviour (standardised mean difference = 0.60 (95% CI: 0.20,1.00)), and led to improvements in academic achievement when a progress monitoring tool was used (standardised mean difference = 1.03 (95% CI: 0.22,1.84)). However, no effect was found for cognitive functions (standardised mean difference = 0.33 (95% CI: -0.11,0.77)) or physical activity (standardised mean difference = 0.40 (95% CI: -1.15,0.95)).
• CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest classroom-based physical activity may have a positive impact on academic-related outcomes. However, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions due to the level of heterogeneity in intervention components and academic-related outcomes assessed. Future studies should consider the intervention period when selecting academic-related outcome measures, and use an objective measure of physical activity to determine intervention fidelity and effects on overall physical activity levels.
• CITATION: Watson, A., Timperio, A., Brown, H., Best, K., & Hesketh, K. D. (2017). Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, 114. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0569-9

Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools: Outcomes of a 2-year pilot study to increase physical activity during the school day

• PURPOSE: To evaluate the impact of the pilot study Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools on the percentage of children achieving the Institute of Medicine guideline of 30 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the school day.
• DESIGN: Pre/multiple post-quasi-experimental. SETTING: Four elementary schools. PARTICIPANTS: Physical education (n = 3) and classroom teachers (n = 12) and students (n = 229). INTERVENTION: Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools was a multicomponent, theory-driven intervention facilitated through school-university partnerships. Intervention approaches included communities of practice, community-based participatory research, and service learning. MEASURES: Accelerometer-derived percentage of children accumulating 30 minutes of MVPA during the school day. ANALYSIS: Multilevel mixed-effects regression estimated MVPA differences over time.
• RESULTS: Compared to control, a 2.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.0% to 4.8%) and 8.8% (95% CI: -0.3% to 15.4%) increase in the percentage of time girls and boys engaged in MVPA during the school day was observed. The percentage of boys and girls in the intervention group achieving 30 minutes of MVPA/day increased from 57.5% to 70.7% and 35.4% to 56.9%, respectively. Boys and girls in the control group decreased from 61.5% to 56.4% and 52.6% to 41.9%, respectively. However, these changes did not reach statistical significance.
• CONCLUSION: Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools demonstrated meaningful impact on children’s MVPA during the school day by increasing boys’ and girls’ MVPA. However, additional strategies may be required to help schools achieve the Institute of Medicine guideline.
• CITATION: Weaver, R. G., Webster, C. A., Egan, C., Campos, C. M. C., Michael, R. D., & Vazou, S. (2017). Partnerships for Active Children in Elementary Schools: Outcomes of a 2-year pilot study to increase physical activity during the school day. American Journal of Health Promotion. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890117117707289

Movement integration in elementary classrooms: Teacher perceptions and implications for program planning

• HIGHLIGHTS: Elementary classroom teachers’ perceptions of movement integration to increase children’s physical activity were examined. Twelve first through third grade teachers across four schools participated in individual, semi-structured interviews. Findings centered on challenges/barriers, current and ideal resources, current implementation processes, and ideas and tips. This study provides important information for planning movement integration programs that are sensitiveto teachers’ needs.
• ABSTRACT: Movement integration (MI), which involves infusing physical activity (PA) into regular classroom time in schools, is widely recommended to help children meet the national guideline of 60min of PA each day. Understanding the perspective of elementary classroom teachers (ECTs) toward MI is critical to program planning for interventions/professional development. This study examined the MI perceptions of ECTs in order to inform the design and implementation of a school-based pilot program that focused in part on increasing children’s PA through MI. Twelve ECTs (Grades 1–3) from four schools were selected to participate based on their responses to a survey about their use of MI. Based on the idea that MI programming should be designed with particular attention to teachers who integrate relatively few movement opportunities in their classrooms, the intent was to select the teacher who reported integrating movement the least at her/his respective grade level at each school. However, not all of these teachers agreed to participate in the study. The final sample included two groups of ECTs, including eight lowest integrating teachers and four additional teachers. Each ECT participated in an interview during the semester before the pilot program was implemented. Through qualitative analysis of the interview transcripts, four themes emerged: (a) challenges and barriers (e.g., lack of time), (b) current and ideal resources (e.g., school support), (c) current implementation processes (e.g., scheduling MI into daily routines), and (e) teachers’ ideas and tips for MI (e.g., stick with it and learn as you go). The themes were supported by data from both groups of teachers. This study’s findings can inform future efforts to increase movement opportunities for children during regular classroom time.
• CITATION: Webster, C. A., Zarrett, N., Cook, B. S., Egan, C., Nesbitt, D., & Weaver, R. G. (2017). Movement integration in elementary classrooms: Teacher perceptions and implications for program planning. Evaluation and Program Planning, 611, 34-143. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2016.12.011

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SECTION 2: Other Relevant Research

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Academic achievement and physical activity: A meta-analysis

• CONTEXT: The effect of physical activity (PA) on different areas of academic achievement and classroom behaviors and how different characteristics of PA interventions could modify the effect remain unclear.
• OBJECTIVE: The objective was twofold: (1) to assess the effect of PA interventions on academic achievement and classroom behaviors in childhood and (2) to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance academic performance.
• DATA SOURCES: We identified studies from the database inception to October 16, 2016. STUDY SELECTION: We selected intervention studies aimed at examining the effect of exercise on academic achievement and classroom behaviors at developmental age. DATA EXTRACTION: Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size for all primary outcomes (language- and mathematics-related skills, reading, composite score, and time in on-task behavior). Positive values represent a direct relationship between PA programs and academic achievement scores or on-task behaviors.
• RESULTS: A total of 26 studies (10 205 children, aged from 4 to 13) were included. Pooled effect size (95% confidence interval) estimates were as follows: (1) 0.16 (−0.06 to 0.37) for language-related skills; (2) 0.21 (0.09 to 0.33) for mathematics-related skills; (3) 0.13 (0.02 to 0.24) for reading; (4) 0.26 (0.07 to 0.45) for composite scores; and (5) 0.77 (0.22 to 1.32) for time in on-task behaviors. LIMITATIONS: Limitations included the variety of tools used to measure academic achievement and the limited number of studies that reported the effect of after-school PA interventions.
• CONCLUSIONS: PA, especially physical education, improves classroom behaviors and benefits several aspects of academic achievement, especially mathematics-related skills, reading, and composite scores in youth.
• CITATION: Álvarez-Bueno, C., Pesce, C., Cavero-Redondo, I., Sánchez-López, M., Garrido-Miguel, M., & Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. (2017). Academic achievement and physical activity: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 140(6), e20171498. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1498

School-based physical activity interventions and physical activity enjoyment: A meta-analysis

• BACKGROUND: The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the effectiveness of school-based physical activity interventions on increasing students’ physical activity enjoyment. An internet search with several databases using the keywords “Adolescents”, “Children”, “Enjoyment”, “Physical Activity”, and “Schools” was performed yielding over 200 published studies. Studies were eliminated based on the lack of experimental manipulation (i.e., non-intervention studies), no assessment of physical activity enjoyment as an outcome variable, a lack of a control or comparison group, and no reporting of the effect estimate’s variability (i.e., standard deviation, standard error, etc.). This procedure resulted in 10 studies being examined in the meta-analysis. Data were analyzed in the state of Utah, USA in 2017. The Hartung-Knapp-Sidak-Jonkman method for a random effects meta-analysis was employed with studies being weighted by inverse variance. The pooled Standardized Mean Difference = 0.38 (95% C.I. [0.10–0.65], p = 0.011). Cochran’s Q test showed statistical significance (p < 0.001) and the I2 = 76.6%, suggesting large heterogeneity across the 10 studies. Egger’s regression model yielded an intercept coefficient that was statistically significant (bias = 3.28, 95% C.I. [0.21–6.36], p = 0.039), indicating the presence of small-study effects.
• CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis provides evidence that school-based physical activity interventions can be effective in increasing physical activity enjoyment in children and adolescents. However, the magnitude of the pooled effect was small-to-moderate and there was evidence for publication bias and large between-study heterogeneity.
• CITATION: Burns, R. D., Fu, Y., & Podlog, L. W. (2017). School-based physical activity interventions and physical activity enjoyment: A meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 103, 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.08.011

After-school physical activity interventions on child and adolescent physical activity and health: A review of reviews

• PURPOSE: Schools are a critical setting for children to accrue recommended levels of physical activity, and after-school programmes are suggested to supplement existing programmes such as physical education. This review of reviews provides a comprehensive picture of the effects of after-school physical activity programmes on student physical activity and health.
• METHODS: We completed a literature search of electronic databases and identified six existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the effects of after-school programmes on child and adolescent physical activity and health. We compared these reviews on numerous factors, including the databases searched, aims, outcome variables, physical activity measures, inclusion criteria, and quality of original studies.
• RESULTS: Our review of reviews identified considerable differences among the published reviews in the number and type of studies included, and in the conclusions drawn. In general, the reviews identified better outcomes when conducting the programmes in school rather than community settings, providing sessions on two or more days a week, and ensuring high programme attendance rates. Subgroup analyses indicated that girls were more receptive than boys to intervention programmes that promoted weight control. Additionally, there were some benefits for increasing physical activity levels among overweight youth and boys.
• CONCLUSIONS: This review of reviews suggests there is currently only modest support of the benefits of after-school programmes on child and adolescent physical activity levels and body composition. Many questions remain unanswered, and there is further need to design, implement, and assess quality after-school interventions that target physical activity in diverse settings.
• CITATION: Demetriou, Y., Gillison, F., & McKenzie, T. L. (2017). After-school physical activity interventions on child and adolescent physical activity and health: A review of reviews. Advances in Physical Education, 7(2), 191. https://doi.org/10.4236/ape.2017.72017 Link to article

A whole brain volumetric approach in overweight/obese children: Examining the association with different physical fitness components and academic performance. The ActiveBrains project

• BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Obesity, as compared to normal weight, is associated with detectable structural differences in the brain. To the best of our knowledge, no previous study has examined the association of physical fitness with gray matter volume in overweight/obese children using whole brain analyses. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the association between the key components of physical fitness (i.e. cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility and muscular fitness) and brain structural volume, and to assess whether fitness-related changes in brain volumes are related to academic performance in overweight/obese children. A total of 101 overweight/obese children aged 8–11 years were recruited from Granada, Spain. The physical fitness components were assessed following the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 T S Magnetom Tim Trio system. Gray matter tissue was calculated using Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration Through Exponentiated Lie algebra (DARTEL). Academic performance was assessed by the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz Tests of Achievement. All analyses were controlled for sex, peak high velocity offset, parent education, body mass index and total brain volume. The statistical threshold was calculated with AlphaSim and further Hayasaka adjusted to account for the non-isotropic smoothness of structural images.
• RESULTS: The main results showed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness was related to greater gray matter volumes (P < 0.001, k = 64) in 7 clusters with β ranging from 0.493 to 0.575; specifically in frontal regions (i.e. premotor cortex and supplementary motor cortex), subcortical regions (i.e. hippocampus and caudate), temporal regions (i.e. inferior temporal gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus) and calcarine cortex. Three of these regions (i.e. premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex and hippocampus) were related to better academic performance (β ranging from 0.211 to 0.352; all P < 0.05). Higher speed-agility was associated with greater gray matter volumes (P < 0.001, k = 57) in 2 clusters (i.e. the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus) with β ranging from 0.564 to 0.611. Both clusters were related to better academic performance (β ranging from 0.217 to 0.296; both P < 0.05). Muscular fitness was not independently associated with greater gray matter volume in any brain region. Furthermore, there were no statistically significant negative association between any component of physical fitness and gray matter volume in any region of the brain.
• CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility, but not muscular fitness, may independently be associated with greater volume of numerous cortical and subcortical brain structures; besides, some of these brain structures may be related to better academic performance. Importantly, the identified associations of fitness and gray matter volume were different for each fitness component. These findings suggest that increases in cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility may positively influence the development of distinctive brain regions and academic indicators, and thus counteract the harmful effect of overweight and obesity on brain structure during childhood.
• CITATION: Esteban-Cornejo, I., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Contreras-Rodriguez, O., Verdejo-Roman, J., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Migueles, J. H., … Ortega, F. B. (2017). A whole brain volumetric approach in overweight/obese children: Examining the association with different physical fitness components and academic performance. The ActiveBrains project. NeuroImage, 159, 346–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.011

“For whom was it effective?” Moderators of the effect of a school-based intervention on potential physical activity determinants among Brazilian students

• AIMS: Knowledge about the effects of school-based interventions on modifiable physical activity (PA) determinants (e.g., social support), and whether the intervention effect differs according to students’ characteristics (e.g., age and gender) are relevant PA promotion topics. This study aims to answer these topics among Brazilian students.
• METHODS: This cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted with 548 students in the intervention group and 537 in the control group (51.5% of boys; aged 11–18 years). The four-month intervention included strategies focused on training teachers, opportunities for PA in the school environment, and health education. Potential PA determinants (attitude, self-efficacy, support of friends, parents, and teachers, perceived neighborhood environment and PA facilities in school) and moderators (gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES), and PA level at baseline) were assessed using self-reported instrument. Height and weight were measured to estimate the students’ body mass index (BMI) status. Generalized linear models were used.
• RESULTS: In general, there was a significant and positive intervention effect for attitude, support of friends and teachers for PA, as well as PA facilities in school; effect size was 0.29, 0.24, 0.34, and 0.29, respectively (P < 0.05). Age (support of friends, parents and teachers, and PA facilities in school), SES (support of friends and PA facilities in school), and BMI status (support of friends) were moderators of the intervention effect on some outcomes.
• CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the intervention improved potential PA determinants, but some changes occurred differently according to students’ characteristics. These findings should be considered in PA policies in the school context.
• CITATION: Filho, V. C. B., da Silva, K. S., Mota, J., Vieira, N. F. C., Gubert, F. do A., & da Silva Lopes, A. (2017). “For whom was it effective?” Moderators of the effect of a school-based intervention on potential physical activity determinants among Brazilian students. Preventive Medicine, 97, 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.01.007

Run for your life! Childhood physical activity effects on brain and cognition

• ABSTRACT: The past two decades have uncovered the beneficial relation of physical activity and other health behaviors on brain and cognition, with the majority of data emerging from older adult populations. More recently, a similar research thread has emerged in school-aged children, which offers insight into the relation of physical activity to scholastic performance, providing a real-world application of the benefits observed in the laboratory. Technological advances have similarly furthered our understanding of physical activity effects on cognitive and brain health. Given this emerging body of work, this manuscript reviews the basic findings within the field, but more importantly suggests triggers or signals from the emerging literature that will shape the field in the near future. The overall goal of this body of research is to increase cognitive and brain health to promote effective functioning of individuals across the lifespan.
• CITATION: Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Hatfield, B. D. (2017). Run for your life! Childhood physical activity effects on brain and cognition. Kinesiology Review, 6(1), 12-21. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/kr.2016-0034

Physical activity of school faculty and related professional development

• PURPOSE AND METHODS: The purpose of this study was to examine the possible influence of physical activity (PA) focused professional development (PD) sessions for school faculty on the PA they performed themselves or implemented in the classroom for their students. The relationship between perceived value of PD and the reported PA and perceived wellness of school faculty was also evaluated. A survey was developed using previously validated questionnaires and distributed electronically to school faculty in 82 schools in 23 school districts in the metropolitan area of Denver, Colorado, USA on two occasions during the 2014-15 academic year. Respondents were asked to self-report the amount of PA they participated in, their self-perceived health status, and their personal value of PD sessions among other questions.
• RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Many faculty members reported that they met PA guidelines and felt that they were in good overall health. Approximately 47% and 39% of respondents stated that PD had no effect on changing their own health habits or their students’ health habits, respectively. There was no correlation between whether a respondent reported performing more PA and their perception of the value of PD. Because many respondents reported meeting PA guidelines indicating a personal value of PA, these results indicate that there may be an additional factor beyond a faculty member’s personal value of PA that is influencing the teachers’ perceived value of PD. A non-trivial number of respondents reported changes in health behaviors for themselves or their students due to PD sessions indicating that PD related to PA may be a useful tool in influencing the health behaviors of faculty and students if properly developed and implemented.
• CITATION: Holeva-Eklund, W.M., Behrens, T.K., Carpenter, D., Tucker, E., Field, F., & Kelly, C. (2017). Physical activity of school faculty and related professional development. Journal of Physical Education Research, 4(3), 22-30. Retrieved from http://www.joper.org/JOPER/JOPERVolume4_Issue3_7_9_2017_119.pdf

Improvements in standardised test scores from a multi-component nutrition and healthy living intervention in a US elementary-school setting

• OBJECTIVE: The Healthier Options for Public Schoolchildren (HOPS) intervention aimed simultaneously to change school policies regarding the nutritional content of school-provided meals, nutrition and healthy lifestyle curricula, and other school-based wellness activities. Researchers examined how HOPS affected students’ academic achievement, attendance and behaviour.
• DESIGN: Longitudinal study of 23,335 elementary-school students aged 4–16 years enlisted in kindergarten to grade 8 in the 2005–2006 school year and followed through until the 2008–2009 school year. SETTING: HOPS was implemented in 11 Buffalo (New York) public elementary schools at the start of 2007–2008 school year and concluded in January 2009; 34 other district elementary schools were chosen for comparison. METHOD: Administrative records were obtained containing student demographics, mathematics and English test scores, and attendance and disciplinary records. A difference-in-differences approach was used to measure the HOPS intervention’s effect on mathematics and English test scores and the proportion of days present or not suspended. Significance was tested at 1% and 5% levels.
• RESULTS: Analysis comparing students in intervention and comparison schools revealed an increase in standardised mathematics test scores among all students (p < .05), with particularly strong impacts on girls (p < .01), African American and Hispanic students (p < .01) and economically advantaged students (p < .01). HOPS had an adverse impact on attendance and disciplinary referrals (p < .01), although the effects were small.
• CONCLUSION: When considering the implementation of a school-based wellness programme, administrators should consider its academic benefits. Research into the effectiveness of programmes such as HOPS at improving cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes of school-aged children is particularly relevant given recent US Department of Agriculture rollback of whole grain, sodium and milk requirements.
• CITATION: Kopkin, N., Martin, M. L., & Hollar, D. (2017). Improvements in standardised test scores from a multi-component nutrition and healthy living intervention in a US elementary-school setting. Health Education Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896917741510

Levels and sociodemographic correlates of accelerometer-based physical activity in Irish children: a cross-sectional study

• BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to explore levels and sociodemographic correlates of physical activity (PA) over 1 week using accelerometer data.
• METHODS: Accelerometer data was collected over 1 week from 1075 8–11-year-old children in the cross-sectional Cork Children’s Lifestyle Study. Threshold values were used to categorise activity intensity as sedentary, light, moderate or vigorous. Questionnaires collected data on demographic factors. Smoothed curves were used to display minute by minute variations. Binomial regression was used to identify factors correlated with the probability of meeting WHO 60 min moderate to vigorous PA guidelines.
• RESULTS: Overall, 830 children (mean (SD) age: 9.9(0.7) years, 56.3% boys) were included. From the binomial multiple regression analysis, boys were found more likely to meet guidelines (probability ratio 1.17, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.28) than girls. Older children were less likely to meet guidelines than younger children (probability ratio 0.91, CI 0.87 to 0.95). Normal weight children were more likely than overweight and obese children to meet guidelines (probability ratio 1.25, CI 1.16 to 1.34). Children in urban areas were more likely to meet guidelines than those in rural areas (probability ratio 1.19, CI 1.07 to 1.33). Longer daylight length days were associated with greater probability of meeting guidelines compared to shorter daylight length days.
• CONCLUSIONS: PA levels differed by individual factors including age, gender and weight status as well as by environmental factors including residence and daylight length. Less than one-quarter of children (26.8% boys, 16.2% girls) meet guidelines. Effective intervention policies are urgently needed to increase PA.
• CITATION: Li, X., Kearney, P. M., Keane, E., Harrington, J. M., & Fitzgerald, A. P. (2017). Levels and sociodemographic correlates of accelerometer-based physical activity in Irish children: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 71(6), 521-527. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2016-207691

Integration and physical education: A review of research

• ABSTRACT: The Common Core State Standards Initiative has placed an increased focus on mathematics and English language arts. A relationship between physical activity and academic achievement is evident, but research on integration of academic subjects with physical education is still unclear. This literature review examined databases for the years 2004–2013, focusing on physical education or physical activity and core academic subjects for school-aged youth. 23 studies were found that focused on integration and physical education that met the inclusion criteria. These were from 16 different publication outlets, ranging in research methods, country, and population. This review provides information on the status of integration and physical education. Since classroom teachers are increasingly being encouraged to incorporate core subjects with physical activity into their classes, it would be appropriate for physical educators to understand the desired outcomes of integration of core subjects before attempting its implementation.
• CITATION: Marttinen, R. H. J., McLoughlin, G., Fredrick, R., & Novak, D. (2017). Integration and physical education: A review of research. Quest, 69(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2016.1150864

Barriers and facilitators to the implementation of physical activity policies in schools: A systematic review

• PURPOSE: Research consistently indicates that schools fail to implement mandatory physical activity policies. This review aimed to describe factors (barriers and facilitators) that may influence the implementation of school physical activity policies which specify the time or intensity that physical activity should be implemented and to map these factors to a theoretical framework.
• METHODS: A systematic search was undertaken in six databases for quantitative or qualitative studies published between 1995-March 2016 that examined teachers’, principals’ or school administrators’ reported barriers and/or facilitators to implementing mandated school physical activity policies. Two independent reviewers screened texts, extracted and coded data from identified articles using the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF).
• RESULTS: Of the 10,346 articles identified, 17 studies met the inclusion criteria (8 quantitative, 9 qualitative). Barriers and facilitators identified in qualitative studies covered 9 and 10 TDF domains respectively. Barriers and facilitators reported in quantitative studies covered 8 TDF domains each. The most common domains identified were: ‘environmental context and resources’ (e.g., availability of equipment, time or staff), ‘goals’ (e.g., the perceived priority of the policy in the school), ‘social influences’ (e.g., support from school boards), and ‘skills’ (e.g., teachers’ ability to implement the policy).
• IMPLICATIONS: Implementation support strategies that target these factors may represent promising means to improve implementation of physical activity policies and increase physical activity among school-aged children. Future studies assessing factors that influence school implementation of physical activity policies would benefit from using a comprehensive framework to help identify if any domains have been overlooked in the current literature.
• CITATION: Nathan, N., Elton, B., Babic, M., McCarthy, N., Sutherland, R., Presseau, J., … Wolfenden, L. (2017). Barriers and facilitators to the implementation of physical activity policies in schools: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.11.012

Rethinking school-based approaches to promote physical activity among children: using the evidence base more effectively

• RESEARCH: Researchers should seek to provide better quality evidence on the effect of interventions to promote physical activity during PE and the impact of such interventions on other important educational outcomes.
• POLICY: It is recommended that schools adopt the National Professional Recommendations for PE from SHAPE America which has been shown to result to higher levels of physical activity during PE than state-based policies.
• PRACTICE: We need to know the optimal “dose” of professional development that is needed each year to up-skill current specialist and classroom teachers so they can provide the best learning environments for their students during PE classes.
• CITATION: Okely, A. D. (2017). Rethinking school-based approaches to promote physical activity among children: using the evidence base more effectively. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 1–3. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13142-017-0462-8

Regular physical activity and educational outcomes in youth: A longitudinal study

• PURPOSE: The objectives of this study were to determine whether longitudinal changes in accelerometer-assessed moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were associated with changes in educational outcomes (i.e., academic performance and mathematics engagement) and to examine whether the association was nonlinear.
• METHODS: Longitudinal data were collected from 2,194 Australian adolescents (mean age = 13.40 years, standard deviation = .73) at two time points (Term 1, 2014, and Term 2, 2015). To measure the total MVPA, the adolescents wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days. The participants responded to a questionnaire to measure mathematics engagement and completed a nationally administered numeracy test to assess academic performance.
• RESULTS: Latent change score models indicated that increases in MVPA had a positive quadratic association with National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) scores in girls (β = .39, p < .001) but not boys. In comparison, cross-sectional regression analyses indicated that MVPA had a positive quadratic association with NAPLAN scores in grade 7 (β = .92, p = .04) boys and in grade 9 boys (β = .60, p = .06), but not in girls. There was also a positive quadratic association between MVPA and school engagement in grade 9 boys (β = .77, p = .03).
• CONCLUSIONS: Cross-sectional evidence indicated that boys who were more physically active had better educational outcomes than their less active peers, and girls who increased their regular physical activity showed improvements in academic performance. All students need to increase their physical activity levels for health and educational benefits, without compromising the time spent on study and homework.
• CITATION: Owen, K. B., Parker, P. D., Astell-Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (in press). Regular physical activity and educational outcomes in youth: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.014

Physical activity and global self-worth in a longitudinal study of children

• PURPOSE: Physical activity is associated with an array of physical and mental health benefits among children and adolescents. The development of self-worth/self-esteem has been proposed as a mechanism to explain the mental health benefits derived from physical activity. Despite several studies that have analyzed the association between physical activity and self-worth, the results have been inconsistent. It is also uncertain how related physical health measures, such as sedentary behavior, body composition, and fitness, influence the relationship between physical activity and self-worth over time. In the present study, we 1) analyzed if the association between physical activity and self-worth remained constant over time and whether this relationship varied by sex and 2) investigated if changes in body composition and fitness level mediated the relationship between physical activity and self-worth.
• METHODS: Data from the Physical Health Activity Study Team were used for this analysis. The Physical Health Activity Study Team is a prospective cohort study that included 2278 children at baseline (ages 9–10 yr) and included eight follow-up contacts for a 4-yr study period. Linear mixed-effects models were used to estimate global self-worth (GSW) over follow-up.
• RESULTS: Increased physical activity was associated with greater GSW across all waves of data collection, and this relationship did not vary significantly over time or between sexes. Aerobic fitness was positively associated with GSW, whereas body mass index (BMI) was inversely related to GSW. Both aerobic fitness and BMI appeared to mediate the association between physical activity and GSW. Sedentary behavior was not significantly associated with GSW.
• CONCLUSION: Physical activity is associated with greater [global self-worth], and this relationship appears to be mediated by BMI and aerobic fitness. These findings reinforce the importance of physical behaviors and physical characteristics in shaping GSW in children.
• CITATION: Reddon, H., Meyre, D., & Cairney, J. (2017). Physical activity and global self-worth in a longitudinal study of children. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 49(8), 1606-1613. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000001275

Physical fitness and academic performance in youth: A systematic review

• ABSTRACT: Physical fitness (PF) is a construct of health- and skill-related attributes which have been associated with academic performance (AP) in youth. This study aimed to review the scientific evidence on the association among components of PF and AP in children and adolescents. A systematic review of articles using databases PubMed/Medline, ERIC, LILACS, Sci ELO, and Web of Science was undertaken. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies examining the association between at least one component of PF and AP in children and adolescents, published between 1990 and June 2016, were included. Independent extraction of articles was carried out by the two authors using predefined data fields. From a total of 45 studies included, 25 report a positive association between components of PF with AP and 20 describe a single association between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and AP. According to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines: 12 were classified as low, 32 as medium risk, and 1 as high risk of bias. Thirty-one studies reported a positive association between AP and CRF, six studies with muscular strength, three studies with flexibility, and seven studies reported a positive association between clustered of PF components and AP. The magnitude of the associations is weak to moderate (β = 0.10-0.42 and odds = 1.01-4.14). There is strong evidence for a positive association between CRF and cluster of PF with AP in cross-sectional studies; and evidence from longitudinal studies for a positive association between cluster of PF and AP; the relationship between muscular strength and flexibility with AP remains uncertain.
• CITATION: Santana, C. A., Cattuzzo, M. T., Andrade, L. P., Prado, W. L., Azevedo, L. B., & Hill, J. O. (2017). Physical fitness and academic performance in youth: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports, 27(6), 579-603. doi:10.1111/sms.12773

A review of implementation outcome measures of school-based physical activity interventions

• BACKGROUND: Measuring the implementation of school-based physical activity (PA) interventions is an important prerequisite in assessing their impact. Prior to conducting a study to assess the implementation of the daily physical activity (DPA) policy in Ontario, Canada, a literature review was conducted to identify existing survey instruments to measure 5 implementation outcomes: adoption, fidelity, implementation cost, reach, and sustainability.
• METHODS: A search for survey instruments to assess these implementation outcomes at the teacher and school administrator levels was conducted in 7 bibliographic databases, as well as the gray literature. Each survey instrument was coded as assessing 1 of the 5 implementation outcomes if it included at least 1 item measuring the construct.
• RESULTS: Twenty-three survey instruments were identified. None of the instruments were specifically developed to measure the implementation outcomes. Fidelity was the most common implementation outcome measured, followed by adoption. The least common implementation outcome measured was sustainability. Thirty-five percent of survey instruments assessed were previously tested for validity and 26% were previously tested for reliability.
• CONCLUSIONS: Based on this review, a gap in available instruments to measure implementation outcomes of school-based PA programs was identified. An adapted theoretical framework, presented here, has potential application in future implementation studies.
• CITATION: Shah, S., Allison, K. R., Schoueri-Mychasiw, N., Pach, B., Manson, H., & Vu-Nguyen, K. (2017). A review of implementation outcome measures of school-based physical activity interventions. Journal of School Health, 87(6), 474–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12514

The association of physical activity and academic behavior: A systematic review

• BACKGROUND: In this systematic review, we assessed the existing research describing the effects of physical activity (PA) on academic behavior, with a special focus on the effectiveness of the treatments applied, study designs, outcome measures, and results.
• METHODS: We obtained data from various journal search engines and 218 journal articles were downloaded that were relevant to PA and academic performance topics. The abstracts of all the articles were independently peer reviewed to assess whether they met the inclusion criteria for further analysis. The literature search was ongoing. Of the reviewed articles, 9 were chosen on the topic of PA effects on academic behavior. Each article was analyzed and summarized using a standard summary template.
• RESULTS: Overall, PA interventions commonly found positive effects on academic behavior, with few exceptions. There were additional unique findings regarding differences in outcome measures and PA treatments.
• CONCLUSIONS: The findings from these studies are significant and support the implementation or continuation of PA in schools to improve academic behavior and associated performance. More research needs to be conducted using the effective aspects of the treatments from this review with consistent outcome measures.
• CITATION: Sullivan, R. A., Kuzel, A. H., Vaandering, M. E., & Chen, W. (2017). The association of physical activity and academic behavior: A systematic review. Journal of School Health, 87(5), 388–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12502

Predictors of segmented school day physical activity and sedentary time in children from a Northwest England low-income community

• BACKGROUND: Schools have been identified as important settings for health promotion through physical activity participation, particularly as children are insufficiently active for health. The aim of this study was to investigate the child and school-level influences on children′s physical activity levels and sedentary time during school hours in a sample of children from a low-income community.
• METHODS: One hundred and eighty-six children (110 boys) aged 9–10 years wore accelerometers for 7 days, with 169 meeting the inclusion criteria of 16 h∙day⁻¹ for a minimum of three week days. Multilevel prediction models were constructed to identify significant predictors of sedentary time, light, and moderate to vigorous physical activity during school hour segments. Child-level predictors (sex, weight status, maturity offset, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity self-efficacy, physical activity enjoyment) and school-level predictors (number on roll, playground area, provision score) were entered into the models.
• RESULTS: Maturity offset, fitness, weight status, waist circumference-to-height ratio, sedentary time, moderate to vigorous physical activity, number of children on roll and playground area significantly predicted physical activity and sedentary time.
• CONCLUSIONS: Research should move towards considering context-specific physical activity and its correlates to better inform intervention strategies.
• CITATION: Taylor, S. L., Curry, W. B., Knowles, Z. R., Noonan, R. J., McGrane, B., & Fairclough, S. J. (2017). Predictors of segmented school day physical activity and sedentary time in children from a Northwest England low-income community. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(5), 534. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050534

Ready to learn: The impact of the Morning Blast physical activity intervention on elementary school students